Creating a Positive Secondary Classroom Culture

As I went into my first year of teaching, I was far too overwhelmed to think about how I could consciously create a classroom culture. I did instinctively know that I wanted to establish an environment of trust, respect, and kindness, in line with my core values. But how to accomplish that?

As a more experienced teacher, I can now reflect a bit more on what a positive secondary classroom culture looks like and how we can build it. I also realize now that it’s not as hard as it may seem when you’re new to the classroom.

So what does a positive classroom culture look like? I define it as one that supports and enhances students’ learning, helps students take on challenges with a growth mindset, and promotes healthy social behaviors.

I think the first step in creating a positive classroom culture is getting to know our core values so we can be conscious about establishing classroom procedures, guidelines, and expectations that reflect them. What are some core values for the classroom that resonate with you? Here are a few of mine:

• Respect

• Trust

• Attention/effort/responsibility

• Support

• Enjoyment in learning and growth

• Kindness

Since I’m no longer in the classroom but still working with students as a tutor, I hear a lot about classroom cultures and management styles from students’ perspectives. Here are a few pieces of insight that I’ve gained from this experience:

1. Regardless of classroom management style, students can always sense (and always appreciate) when teachers truly care and are passionate about teaching.

2. Core classroom values such as trust, respect, and support start with teachers. Teachers who model these core values even in the face of behavioral issues lay the foundation for them to flourish in the classroom.

3. Consistently praising effort and improvement over perfection or traits like intelligence creates a supportive environment in which all students feel they can grow.

4. Clarity and consistency in the application of classroom rules and procedures helps to build a safe environment in which trust can develop.

5. Secondary teachers have the unique opportunity to “reset” students’ expectations about what a classroom experience can be. At the secondary level, kids are coming into the classroom with a wider variety of previous experiences in school, both good and bad. This means a greater variety of attitudes toward learning and ideas about appropriate classroom behavior.

With your core values and some student insights in mind, here are some thoughts for creating a positive secondary classroom culture, either from day one or to reset after a rocky period.

• Communicate with clarity, warmth, and calmness what your expectations are. By communicating in this manner, you are modeling respectful, appropriate interactions and setting the standard for how you expect students to communicate in your classroom.

• Put classroom rules, policies, and procedures in writing. You may even have students participate in the process of creating clear and fair policies.

• Discuss the core values that you’ve identified and what they look like in action. Ask students to give examples of what each of the values looks like in action.

• Provide clear, written academic expectations and policies, including late work, test retakes, extra help, and missed classes. Some of the most common issues I see with students I tutor involve these topics. You can avoid future confusion and disputes by clearly defining policies and students’ responsibilities from the beginning.

• Have students sign all written policies and procedures to indicate they are in agreement with them.

• If an issue arises that requires a change in classroom policies/procedures, discuss openly and clearly with students. As long as there is a clear rationale for the change, students will usually be on board.

• Be authentic with students—if you make a mistake, acknowledge it. If a lesson or activity doesn’t go well, discuss it. Students don’t expect teachers to be perfect, and mistakes or bombed lessons can be a great opportunity for us to model accountability and authenticity.

Please let me know in the comments below if you have any tips or techniques for building a positive classroom culture at the secondary level!

5 Reasons to Incorporate SAT/ACT Practice into Your Curriculum

Secondary curriculum in most schools and districts is meant to prepare students for university study, but it rarely prepares them for the exams that still play an important role in college admissions. Whether due to time constraints, the perceived difficulty of the material, or the idea that SAT/ACT material is incompatible with other curriculum priorities, SAT/ACT practice is often left to students to do on their own.

In this article, I’ll give you 5 reasons why incorporating SAT/ACT practice into your curriculum is a great idea, whether or not your school separately offers SAT/ACT prep courses or workshops. In a later post, I’ll give you some ideas for easy ways to do so.

1. SAT/ACT Material Goes Beyond Most State Standards, Meaning that You’ll Not Only Cover But Exceed Your Standards

When compared with the Common Core and other state standards, the SAT and ACT require a higher level of reading, language, and math skills. Not every topic or skill you teach will appear on the SAT/ACT, but where there’s an overlap, SAT/ACT questions generally go deeper and require more critical thinking and analytical skills. The reading passages are rich sources of academic and Tier 2 vocabulary. Math questions tend to require greater integration of diverse math skills and more complex problem solving.

2. Skills Tested on the SAT/ACT Are Critical to Success in Higher Education

Before I started tutoring and offering small group SAT/ACT test prep, I mistakenly believed that the SAT and ACT measured mastery of topics and content knowledge. As I began to understand the tests better, I realized that they are actually designed to measure academic skill.

While content knowledge is certainly a big part of doing well on the math portion of these exams, and vocabulary is important for the language portions, content knowledge only gets students so far. The rest comes down to skill: how well do students parse a text for meaning, argument, evidence, and structure? How well can they problem solve? How well do they think and write about a topic? These are skills that are crucial for students’ future academic outcomes.

3. Not All Students Have Access to SAT/ACT Prep or Know How to Prepare

All students are subjected to the same test, but unfortunately study after study confirms that socioeconomic factors play a major role in SAT/ACT scores. Building in some SAT/ACT-type practice to your curriculum is a great way to make sure all students gain familiarity with the test material and format.

4. SAT/ACT Practice Can Make Topics or Skills Covered in Your Curriculum More Relevant and Memorable to Students

I can personally attest to the truth of this one: when I mention to students that a particular math topic is tested frequently on the SAT/ACT, their ears perk up. What may have quickly been forgotten after a lesson or unit ends is now given a place of greater importance and is more likely to be remembered. Not every student will be motivated to pay extra attention to material they know might appear on the SAT/ACT, but many will.

5. SAT/ACT Practice Provides a Great Challenge and Enrichment Opportunity

For consistent early finishers and high achieving students, SAT/ACT practice provides a challenge and an opportunity to test and improve their skills. I love reinforcing crucial academic skills that are relevant to the topic at hand with “SAT/ACT challenge questions.”

I’m a big believer in the idea that all students (not just our self-motivated high achievers) benefit from challenging work that requires higher level thinking and problem solving, with the appropriate support and resources.

Please let me know your thoughts (and whether you include any SAT/ACT practice in your classroom) in the comments below!

Daily Reflection and Writing on “The Big Questions”

One of the things that I love best about writing curriculum is that I get to think about what I would have loved to have when I was in the classroom. I’m also fortunate enough to see things through the eyes of the kids I tutor: which skills and areas often need reinforcement? What motivates and interests them? What academic skills will they need as they move through middle and high school into higher education?

An issue that consistently comes up for many of the kids I work with is writing. Being a sticky skill, it’s one that takes time to improve. It also generally takes a multiple-pronged approach, with improvements in vocabulary and word use, grammar, mechanics, transitions, and logical sequencing of ideas. While “more writing” may help with fluency, it doesn’t do much to address the other issues that contribute to weak writing skills.

My goal was to create a daily writing resource that is targeted at improving the component skills of writing. I also wanted to incorporate deep reflection and analytical thinking about “the big questions” to spark intellectual curiosity and broaden horizons.

How to Use Daily Quote Analysis: Short Writing Prompts

I think the best use of this resource is as a daily class starter, since the benefit of reflection and deep thinking will carry through class. Alternatively, it could be given as daily homework. The writing prompts and vocabulary/grammar tasks should take about 10 minutes to complete individually. I included ideas for optional collaborative work as well.

Each quote includes biographical and historical information to provide context, and vocabulary/grammar notes to call attention to specific vocabulary and grammar topics. One or two short vocabulary or grammar tasks are given as well. Next, the writing portion is divided into two sections. Under “Analysis,” students will analyze and explain the meaning of the quote. Under “My Thoughts,” students will state whether they agree, disagree, or partially agree/disagree with the quote and explain why using at least one concrete example that proves or disproves the validity of the quote.

While this resource is truly no prep, I would recommend (before students begin to work with it) taking some time to go over the example response provided. This will help students understand the difference between the two writing tasks: analyzing and explaining the meaning of the quote and then giving their opinion and backing it up with examples.

The resource includes different options for grading and a rubric for formal grading if teachers elect that option.

Check out a preview of the resource and purchase it here and as always I love to hear your feedback!

Her Words Made Us Better: RIP Toni Morrison

The recent passing of Toni Morrison has had me reflecting about why exactly representation matters so much in literature (and all of the arts). The most frequently cited reason is that kids and adults need to see themselves and their experiences reflected in a variety of ways that are not limited by stereotypes. But representation also helps expand our empathy through deepening our understanding of the human experience and allowing us to identify with and feel for others who, on the surface, may appear to be quite different from us. In a world that so urgently needs more compassion, this is a powerful reason that representation is so important.

If you can only be tall because somebody’s on their knees, you have a serious problem.

—Toni Morrison

My mom gave me Morrison’s The Bluest Eye when I was 13 years old, and reading it was completely transformative. It was the first book I’d read about a black character by a black author. It profoundly shaped my development as a white girl previously unaware of racism and the experiences of black people in America. I could have continued to go through life with my eyes closed to other people’s struggles, but thankfully Morrison’s words touched me and sparked a lifelong quest to expand: my empathy, my understanding, my knowledge of history, and my desire to help. Seeing the world through Pecola’s eyes also expanded my awareness of gender: the fact that certain experiences are unique to girls and women by virtue of being girls and women is something that many of us understand unconsciously, automatically, but without the consciousness that allows us to see the possibility of a better way.

There seems to be such a thing as grace, such a thing as beauty, such a thing as harmony. All of which are wholly free and available to us.

—Toni Morrison

Throughout high school and college, I continued to choose to read a wide variety of authors, and in every great book there were characters I cared so deeply for, no matter how different they seemed from me. When we care about fictional characters that seem very different from us, when we strive to understand their experiences within the context of the larger society in which they live, it becomes easier to understand real people with real experiences in an unjust world. It becomes easier to see clearly our position in that world and use any privilege we may have to help deconstruct racism and sexism and stand up for justice.

“I tell my students, ‘When you get these jobs that you have been so brilliantly trained for, just remember that your real job is that if you are free, you need to free somebody else. If you have some power, then your job is to empower somebody else.”

—Toni Morrison

Our kids need Morrison’s words and the words of so many other writers. Because our kids need to see themselves reflected in empowering or relatable ways, yes, but also because empathy expands when it extends to characters who we otherwise may perceive as “not like us.” Literature is a powerful tool in building empathy, and empathy is what we so desperately need more of in this world. RIP Toni Morrison, your words were a gift that will live on.

Why and How to Teach Learning Strategies and Self-Reflection about Learning

As teachers, we have quite a bit of control over how we teach topics to our students, the activities we give them to enhance learning, and the preparation materials we give out before unit tests, midterms, etc. But we don’t have much control over what students do with what we give them as soon as they leave class for the day (and sometimes even in our rooms). Some students seem to know instinctively how to assimilate the new information and skills they learn in class, while others have parents who give them helpful study tips and fill in any blanks in their understanding. But unfortunately, others leave class confused about the topics covered and lack the tools (or the sense of agency) to improve their understanding.

While teaching learning strategies is often left to the realm of special education, in my experience most students benefit from gaining some insight into their own learning habits and practices. In fact, I think teaching kids how to learn is equally if not more important as teaching them what to learn. As a former classroom teacher turned tutor, I’ve realized that by giving kids insight into their own learning process we are setting them up to be able to approach future material confidently and to learn it successfully throughout their lives.

View fullsize

My goal in tutoring is to help students develop skills and habits that eventually make tutoring unnecessary, and I’ve found that one of the most powerful ways to do that is by getting them into the practice of being self reflective about their own learning. And it doesn’t take much in the way of formal teaching; with a series of questions and mostly student-driven discussions students become much more conscious of their approach to learning and about specific strategies that they can use to learn more effectively.

Clearly, one-on-one discussions with students are a great way to help them reflect on their learning, but unfortunately the classroom setting doesn’t give us much one-on-one time. I wanted to find a way to bring this beneficial practice into the classroom, so I’ve created this no-prep student self-evaluation that teachers can use and reuse throughout the year to get students thinking about the way they learn.

View fullsize

Research Backed Learning Strategies

There are also some general principles about learning that are supported by research that we can pass along to students (informally, no lesson required). One is “distributed learning” (aka the spacing effect), meaning that learning is much more effective when studying is broken into smaller chunks over time than when crammed. This is especially helpful for students who have attention difficulties and may feel frustrated or bad about their need to take breaks while studying—the research shows that this is actually a better way to learn!

While old adages about studying may have said “use a familiar and comfortable study spot,” studies have shown that learning is actually enhanced when the surrounding context is varied. This means that studying in different locations, listening to different music or a variety of background noise, and with any other environmental variations can actually be beneficial.

Another learning strategy shown to be extremely effective is testing or “retrieval practice.” After spending some time studying the material, it’s best to put it away and see if we can recall it. Retrieval practice can include a formal in class assessment, or a homework assignment, but quizzing ourselves or having someone else quiz us is a great learning strategy that is supported by many studies. In How We Learn, author Benedict Carrey summarizes what’s been learned from research on retrieval practice in a 1/3 to 2/3 rule: the fastest way to learn something is to spend 1/3 of your time memorizing it and 2/3 of your time reciting it from memory.

Testing is studying, of a different and powerful kind. —Benedict Carrey

I find it helpful to share these types of strategies with students whenever possible, since it can help them make their study time more efficient.

Questions for Learning Self Reflection

Here are some questions that I want my students to be asking themselves in order to become more conscious of their learning habits and strategies. I usually take them through these types of questions a couple of times initially, and then I just remind them to ask themselves periodically.

• How did I learn about this topic initially (lecture/presentation, assigned reading, activity, research project, etc.)?

• How actively did I participate in the initially learning? What grade would I give myself for my efforts? (paying close attention, taking notes, completing the task well, reading carefully, asking questions, etc. vs zoning out, doing the minimum, skimming/skipping the reading, letting others do the work, etc.)

• How much did I learn (as a percentage of what I need to know or be able to do)? What grade would I give my current understanding of the topic?

• Could I explain the topic thoroughly to someone who knows nothing about it? Could I show someone step by step how to solve this type of problem or complete this task successfully?

• What methods usually work best for me to learn something new?

• What tools, resources, and practices can I use to get my knowledge/skill set to 100% with this topic?

View fullsize

Steps for Learning Self-Evaluation

Here are some steps to take students through in order to help them evaluate their own understanding of a topic. These can be used in any subject area.

1. Identify the topic as specifically as possible.

2. State what we know, what we don’t know, and what we need to know, keeping in mind that as we proceed we may uncover more aspects of the topic that we don’t know about

3. Identify the learning method: lecture with slides? Assigned reading? Research project? Informational video? Etc.

4. identify other learning methods/tools/resources that might be helpful or have been helpful in the past: asking the teacher for help, asking a friend, watching a video online, reading more online, rewriting my notes, doing additional practice, etc

5. Evaluate how much we know now: 50%? 75%? 100%? Etc.

6. Repeat the steps until understanding is at or near 100%.

Incorporate Learning Self-Reflections in the Classroom

I think self-reflection is one of the most important practices that we can pass along to students. Becoming more reflective about our own learning habits and strategies, as well as taking ownership over our learning, is a lifelong skill with so many benefits. I’ve created a resource that can be used with students in grades 6+ in any subject area for this purpose. It has three different self-evaluations: pre-semester, pre-assessment (to be used at the end of a unit but prior to a unit test), and post-assessment (for students to reflect on their learning during the unit and their preparation for and performance on the unit test).

Click on the photo below to get this resource and please let me know what you think about teaching learning strategies and self-reflection about learning!

Research Backed Ways to Help Struggling Writers

In a previous post, I talked about some of the similarities I’ve noticed in working with struggling writers. Now I’d like to share some methods for working with struggling writers that I’ve learned from personal experience and from the research on effective methods to improve student writing.

Teach and Reinforce the Writing Process

This point can’t be emphasized enough. While some stellar writers may instinctively use an effective writing process, the vast majority of our students will need specific instruction. Beyond teaching the steps of the writing process (Prewriting, Writing, Revising, Editing, Sharing), we need to teach students how to execute each step. And this requires practice.

Consider having students regularly outline essays in response to prompts in order to practice Prewriting. Make sure the outlines follow a logical structure and contain sufficient detail, as opposed to just brainstorming (which can be fine as an initial step in the Prewriting stage). Editing tasks and peer editing are good practice for editing and revising students’ own work.

Teach Effective Transitions and How to Combine Sentences

Struggling writers often have difficulty putting together pieces of information (or arguments and supporting facts) in a logical and coherent way. Specific instruction on transition/linking words and phrases and how to use them is crucial to helping student writers.

Use Mentor/Exemplar Texts and Sentences

Mentor texts and sentences illustrate the principles of writing and grammar that we’re teaching. Mentor sentences can be a great way to teach grammatical concepts and effective transitions. Also consider providing exemplar texts when you give a rubric (see below).

Incorporate Writing as a Method to Learn Content

Writing about recently learned content has repeatedly been found effective in increasing retention and understanding. I’m a big believer in bringing writing activities into all subject areas, including math, science, and social studies.

Writing can be used across subject areas to:

• reinforce content (“explain,” “summarize,” etc.),

• make connections (“how is this material connected to [current events, something we learned previously]?” etc.), and

• engage critical thinking (“why is this relevant/important?” “what else can we learn about this topic?” etc.).

Having tutored students in math for many years, I’ve noticed that when students can summarize or explain a process in writing they almost always achieve mastery with that topic. Incorporating writing wherever we can and across subject areas increases content understanding and provides even more opportunities for writing practice.

Teach and Have Students Practice Editing

I can’t count the number of times I asked a student to edit his or her own draft, only to have the exact same draft returned to me with a few minor errors corrected. It took time for me to realize that many struggling writers don’t know intuitively how to edit their own work (or the work of others). Editing, just like writing, is a skill that must be taught. Students need to learn what to look for and how to look for it, as well as how to fix problems with sentences, paragraphs, or whole pieces of writing.

One of the best ways I’ve found to teach editing is by having students practice editing a text with defined numbers and categories of errors. By telling students how many errors there are within a certain category (like punctuation, verb tenses, etc.), we are training them to focus on the details that they otherwise may have skipped over. While zooming in to the grammatical details is important, we also need to teach students to zoom out to the big picture (the structure, strength of argument and supporting facts, etc.). Mentor texts are a great way to illustrate “big picture” qualities of writing.

Specifically Identify Writing Assignment Expectations (Rubric + Sample Texts) and Grade/Provide Feedback Accordingly

One of the many great things I learned while tutoring students for the SAT/ACT was the value of sample texts in addition to a rubric. Many of the SAT/ACT study books contain sample student essays with a given score according to the general rubric provided. Reading a high-scoring essay and a low-scoring essay with the rubric as the backdrop is an impactful way for students to understand a grading rubric.

All too often, students eyes’ glaze over while reading rubric measures such as “arguments and supporting evidence are presented cohesively.” Providing sample essays on the highest and lowest end of the rubric and requiring students to read them (or even better, reviewing and discussing them in class) is a powerful tool to help students understand what constitutes a great piece of writing.

Teach Argument

Argument and persuasion are often confused, but they are actually quite different. Argument can serve as persuasion, but persuasion requires much less in terms of reasoning. Argument is rooted in fact and logic while persuasion is rooted in opinion and emotion. Argument is essentially a truth-seeking endeavor, while persuasion is focused on, well, persuading.

I believe that we should prioritize teaching argument over persuasion, and that argument should be made a much bigger part of all school subjects. The process of argument (gathering evidence, making a claim, connecting the claim to the evidence, examining evidence to the contrary, and refining the claim accordingly) develops critical thinking and logical reasoning skills, which are part and parcel of thoughtful, coherent writing. These skills are also extremely important outside of academics.

Teach Vocabulary

While struggling writers often lack a broad vocabulary (or frequently misuse words), great writers tend to have great vocabulary and make effective word choices. Far beyond memorization of definitions, teaching vocabulary with a language building approach can have a great impact on students’ writing skills.

Vocabulary study with a language building approach is a holistic process that not only enriches students’ writing with greater variety of word choice, but also improves their grammar and their contextual understanding of language. Students learn words in context and practice using them correctly while also practicing good grammar. They learn to use different word forms (ex: meticulous, meticulously, meticulousness) while developing a better understanding of sentence structure.

Read, Read, Read

Studies have consistently supported a correlation between increased reading and better writing skills. The same goes for the link between reading and vocabulary and other cognitive skills. There is no question that reading provides great intellectual and emotional benefits, so the more we can have students read the better.

Outside of assigned reading, here are some ideas for encouraging and incentivizing student reading:

1) give an optional reading list (during the year and/or over breaks) with prizes for completion

2) set up a “Twitter style reading board” where students add “tweets” about the books they’re reading

3) host a student book club or create small group book clubs that select a book and meet once a month

4) hold a class reading contest or class vs. class contest

5) give an optional reading list from which students choose several books and complete book projects

6) maintain a classroom library with a diverse selection of fiction and nonfiction

7) allow in-class reading of student selected books when students complete class work

8) create an Instagram-style board where students post photos inspired by what they’re reading with captions that relate the image to the text

9) hold a “books made into movies” seminar—students read/watch and discuss which version was better

I’d love to hear what methods you’ve found effective in helping students improve their writing skills!

7 Common Issues Shared by Struggling Writers

The importance of good writing skills can’t be understated. While in some respects media and technology advances have changed the way we write (e.g., the prevalence of short statements as in tweets and social media captions, etc.), writing remains a fundamental form of human expression and transmission of ideas.

Despite educators’ best efforts, however, research indicates that a troubling percentage of students graduate from high school with poor writing skills and/or unprepared to write at a college level. Recent studies have shown that up to 3/4 of students across different grade levels lack proficiency in writing.

As teachers we know how difficult it can be to improve students’ writing skills. After all, there is so much that goes into good writing! And just as poor writing skills didn’t develop overnight, strong writing skills take time to develop.

Before looking at some research backed methods for helping students become better writers (in a separate post), I’d like to share some of the patterns and tendencies I’ve noticed in working with struggling writers over the years, both as a former classroom teacher and now tutor.

1. Struggling writers often lack critical reading skills.

When asked to state the main idea of passage, describe its structure, analyze the development of an argument or theme, etc., struggling writers tend to give vague or unclear responses that are loosely supported by the text. It’s not surprising given that the same skills involved in good, logical, cohesive writing are required for analytical and critical reading. While reading and writing skills don’t go hand in hand 100% of the time, there is a large enough overlap that a weakness in one area typically predicts a weakness in the other.

2. Struggling writers tend to lack understanding of grammar concepts.

These students may not be able to avoid using run-on sentences, for example, because they don’t actually understand what an independent clause/complete thought is. They might not understand on a fundamental level the role of the different parts of speech in a sentence. They might see that they’re getting marked off for the same things over and over again, but they aren’t able to make the connection and master the grammatical concepts involved.

3. Struggling writers often have a hard time editing their writing and/or the writing of others.

These students tend not to read with an eye to detail and, as a result, they often miss all but the most glaring errors. Even when told that there are remaining punctuation issues, for example, they may be unable to find the errors.

4. Struggling writers typically have a hard time identifying or creating a logical sequence of ideas.

It is often not obvious to struggling writers that the order of ideas has a huge impact on the coherence of a text. They tend to view ideas and information as discrete, somewhat related pieces rather than as part of an overall logical flow. When we point out a lack of logical sequencing or organization, they really don’t understand on a fundamental level why a particular sequence of thoughts makes more sense than another.

5. Struggling writers often lack a strong vocabulary.

These students tend to have a limited working vocabulary, a poor understanding of the nuance and connotation differences between words, or both. They may be able to define a word but be unable to use it effectively in an appropriate context. They also tend to be repetitive in their word choice and unaware of redundancies in their writing. If asked to restate an idea in different words, for example, they often struggle to do so.

6. Struggling writers don’t effectively use pre-writing strategies. Alternatively, they may have great difficulty in starting a piece of writing.

One of the biggest tendencies that I notice in the students who struggle with writing is that they usually don’t plan or outline their writing in advance. While some excellent writers can produce great essays without much advance planning, the majority of struggling writers start writing without an effective plan for organization and structure. They tend to resist the planning process unless it is made a mandatory part of the writing assignment (an outline required to be submitted, for example).

On the flip side, struggling writers may remain “stuck” in thinking about their writing assignments. They may have difficulty with writing fluency and knowing how to effectively start a piece of writing without significant prompting.

7. Struggling writers are generally not avid readers.

These students, more often than not, read very little, if anything, outside of what they’re assigned. With the prevalence of sites like Cliffnotes and Sparknotes, many reluctant readers scrape by without even reading assigned texts at all. (For better or worse, kids often tell me, their tutor, about the “shortcuts” they take.) They largely view reading as a task rather than a joy.

There are exceptions to all of the above, of course, and some struggling writers may have only one or two of these issues. In another post, I’ll address the methods I’ve found most effective in helping struggling writers.

Please let me know if you’ve noticed these or other issues with your struggling student writers!

Why and How I Teach Goal Setting

Effective Goal Setting is a Lifelong, Life Changing Skill

Most kids (and adults) have dreams or ambitions of doing something. What often determines whether that something becomes reality is how we set ourselves up to achieve it. While of course some of our potential is influenced by what we get in the genetic lottery, a good portion of it is also the goals we set for ourselves and how effectively we direct our actions toward achieving those goals. It’s also influenced by how well we can work with our bad habits and replace them with good ones.

In short, effectively setting goals for ourselves and becoming more aware of our habits, good and bad, directly impacts the quality of our lives.

There’s no doubt that effective goal setting is a great lifelong skill, but there’s a lot of misunderstanding about how to set effective goals and the factors that influence whether they are achieved. While some learn good goal setting practices from parents, sports coaches, or music teachers, many of us get to adulthood without really knowing what good goal setting looks like. Imagine if we all learned about effective goal setting and habit change early in life!

“Set Goals” Isn’t Enough

I used to think of goal setting as one of those reflexive, automatic things that everyone knows how to do and does already. In my first year of classroom teaching I used to tell students, “set goals!” and think that was a meaningful piece of advice (sheesh). It hadn’t occurred to me that, for most of us, effective and meaningful goal setting doesn’t come naturally and needs to be learned.

As a tutor, I’ve realized that one of the most important tools I have to help students is to teach them effective goal setting. I’m now convinced that it’s something we should be actively teaching and reinforcing with all students.

Through effective goal setting, I’ve seen kids go from barely passing their classes to getting A’s and B’s and feeling good about school overall. I’ve also seen kids who had felt unmotivated and overwhelmed by school become focused and determined to achieve what they had set out to do. But it didn’t come from my telling them to “set goals.” It came from their understanding of what goals actually are and the specific steps needed to make goals into reality. It also came from their becoming more aware of their habits, good and bad, and how changing seemingly small habits is crucial to making bigger changes.

In order to help students become better goal setters, we need them to understand what effective goals look like, be able to break them into bite sized steps, and plan for any obstacles that may arise.

View fullsize

Step 1: Define Meaningful Goals

Meaningful goals are specific and measurable. The simplest way to think of this is whether the question “did you meet your goal?” can be answered with a simple yes or no. If not, the goal is not specific and measurable. Some goals may not lend themselves to setting a time limit, but when possible goals should include a completion time, like “tomorrow,” “for the semester,” etc. Once the time period passes, it should be easy to answer the question of whether the goal was achieved.

Step 2: Determine What Actions/Habits/Small Steps are Needed

Next, goals need to be broken down into small and specific actions that are also measurable (yes/no). For example, if the goal is to complete a 10K run by the end of the month, the actions might consist of your weekly training schedule (week 1: run 2 miles 3x, etc.).

If the goal is academic (“get an A in History this semester”), the steps might be things like review my notes every day after school, turn in all my homework on time, keep a running vocabulary/terms list and update it at least weekly, etc. Like the goal itself, the steps must be specific and measurable in order to accurately assess their completion when reflecting back on the results of goal setting.

Step 3: Anticipate Obstacles and Make a Plan for Overcoming Them

The next part is where people (especially yours truly) tend to fall down, unfortunately. Human nature is to procrastinate and avoid doing things that are less fun in favor of having fun. We think that by setting the intention to do something that we’ll be sure to do it, but as most of us probably know, it can be easier said than done.

We are also creatures of habit, and just as good habits can help us reach our goals, bad habits can make it more difficult for us to do so. Researcher and writer James Clear (check out his website here) writes that goals are like rudders, the things that give us direction, and systems are the oars, which actually get the work done.  He also writes about the importance of habits in achieving goals, and specifically about how we can change our habits.

Effective goal setting requires consideration of the system that surrounds you. Too often, we set the right goals inside the wrong system. If you're fighting your system each day to make progress, then it's going to be really hard to make consistent progress.

There are all kinds of hidden forces that make our goals easier or harder to achieve. You need to align your environment with your ambitions if you wish to make progress for the long run. 

—James Clear

By anticipating obstacles and challenges that may arise, we can prepare ourselves with a plan to complete our steps no matter what. This requires an honest evaluation of the types of challenges that may interfere with our achieving goals.

We can reflect on past experiences when we’ve set a goal and didn’t reach it for a number of reasons. We can also look at ways in which our environment can help us or hinder us in adopting the habits that help us meet our goals.

For example, I know that oftentimes I’ll get distracted with other projects or by texts or phone calls. So if I know I have to complete a step, I might plan to turn off my phone or put it far away until I finish. Or maybe I designate a specific time to complete the step so that nothing else can distract me.

I find it’s helpful for me to share with students some of my own obstacles and the ways that I deal with them in order to get them thinking about ways to better manage their obstacles.

Step 4: Reflect on What Went Well/Poorly

After the goal’s time period has passed, it’s important for students to learn to reflect on what went wrong and what went right. This process helps them to better understand themselves and their strengths and weaknesses. It also encourages a growth mindset that is focused on progress and learning over perfection.

Reflecting on success or failure (and especially the process that led to either one) is also important in informing future goal setting. If we become aware that a bad habit prevented us from reaching a goal, we can work to overcome that habit and replace it with a better one.

If you’re interested in learning more about habit change, I recommend Atomic Habits by James Clear (Kindle version and audiobook), or you can listen to a great interview he did on The Psychology Podcast.

I’ve also created this no prep resource for teachers to bring goal setting into the classroom with a pre and post term goal setting activity.

Please let me know in the comments what you think about teaching goal setting, what works, what doesn’t, etc!

Teaching Kids to Think Like Lawyers: A Process for More Objective/Logical Thinking and Writing

Education is not the learning of facts but the training of the mind to think. —Albert Einstein

Backstory

My first few weeks of law school were pretty terrible. I’d always done well in school and had gotten good grades on my written work, but suddenly I had to learn to think in a whole new way, a way that at first felt constrained and forced. I wanted to think and write freely and law school was trying to put me in a box. I didn’t want to be a box person!

My intellectual rebellion didn’t last long. What I realized was that, while I may have been reasonably analytical, I’d never learned to approach an issue/topic/question with a consistent and effective process or structure. My thinking (and therefore my writing) was haphazard. I could hit the mark and veer sharply from it without even noticing. And the reason was that there was no structure to guide me. I was basically throwing intellectual noodles at a wall and seeing which ones would stick.

Once my thinking was cleaned up and organized around a repeatable process, I realized that I could approach any problem or question with the process and reach a pretty solid conclusion. My writing followed suit. Instead of being a dreaded box person, I was someone who could confidently approach any given topic and produce a coherent analysis and conclusion.

And instead of being someone who formulated an opinion and then tried to defend it, I was becoming someone who followed a process that allowed me to make conclusions only after all of the relevant facts, rules, principles, etc. had been considered.

Why Teach This Approach to Our Students?

In theory, a lawyer-esque approach to resolving a question or problem is more balanced and less prone to personal biases. It’s the type of thinking that judges use to resolve legal matters without being swayed by their own beliefs (we hope). It’s thinking that is focused on reaching the most rational conclusion rather than defending an already decided upon position.

How easy is it to get hung up defending an argument or perspective that we may not have reached through much analysis at all? The confirmation bias and its close and perhaps more accurately termed cousin, the desirability bias, make it difficult enough for us to see beyond our own preexisting beliefs (or what we wish to be true).

Being able to defend a position persuasively is a great skill, and we should be able to do it effectively. But we get a lot more mileage out of being able to examine a problem thoroughly using a process most likely to produce a reasoned analysis and conclusion.

I believe this is what we desperately need more of in society—thinkers who are more interested in exploring problems and using analytical reasoning to arrive at solid conclusions than in defending their own beliefs. I think we can and should teach this approach to our students, as early as possible.

“It is better to debate a question without settling it than to settle a question without debating it.”

—Joseph Joubert, French essayist

The Process: I.R.A.C. (Issue, Rule, Analysis, Conclusion)

I = Issue

Step one: define the issue. It sounds deceptively easy, but it’s the most crucial step. We need some specificity, since broad, open ended questions don’t lend themselves to sharp analysis. Here are some examples of well and poorly defined issues.

• The question is to what extent the Cold War arms race hastened the collapse of the Soviet Union. (Good)

• What was the overall impact of the Cold War arms race? (Too broad/open ended)

• To what extent was Napoleon’s (Animal Farm) use of revisionist history effective in establishing his complete control over the other animals? (Good)

• How did Napoleon in Animal Farm use revisionist history? (Too broad/open ended)

• Should the government ever be able to seize people’s land? (Too broad/open ended)

• Is it fair for the government to seize a portion of unused land in order to widen a state highway, assuming the landowner is paid a fair price? (Good)

R=Rule

Once we’ve defined the issue with a more specific lens, we need to figure out what rules, framework, principles, laws, definitions, precedents, or guidelines impact our analysis. In other words, we have to discuss the standards that are relevant to our analysis.

In the Cold War example, we’d want to clarify what is meant by the arms race (including specifics on spending by each country), define any key economic terms or indicators, and lay out the timeline of the collapse of the Soviet Union. In the Animal Farm example, we’d want to define and clarify exactly what we mean by revisionist history and identify the methods of revisionist history used by Napoleon. In the land seizure example above, we would want to research the laws and Supreme Court cases that apply to land seizure by the government.

The key is that we’re setting the stage for our analysis by uncovering all of the relevant rules, framework, standards, and definitions that our analysis will be based on.

A=Analysis

Here’s where we get into the meat of things. This is where we apply the rules, definitions, principles, standards and guidelines to the facts of our particular situation.

In the Cold War example, we’d want to discuss the specific impact of the arms race in terms of arms expenditures by each country and the economic and other impacts of such spending by the Soviet Union in particular.

In the Animal Farm example, we’d want to discuss the impact of the revisionist history techniques used by Napoleon on the other animals-did they believe them or go along with them?

In the land seizure example, we’d want to discuss if or why it matters under the law that the land is not being used (as opposed to if it were currently being used for a shopping mall, for example). We’d also want to discuss whether it matters what the government intends to use the land for.

C=Conclusion

Only after we’ve done all of the intellectual heavy lifting may we finally reach a conclusion. Note that this is basically the opposite of what we teach in persuasive writing.

The conclusion should flow naturally from the analysis that we’ve completed. It may be a more limited, or qualified conclusion, but something definitive must be concluded.

In the Cold War example, we may conclude that the arms race spending accelerated the demise of the Soviet Union, or that the demise was inevitable due to other factors. In the Animal Farm example, we may conclude that Napoleon’s use of revisionist history helped him consolidate and increase his power over the other animals (or not). In the land seizure example, we may conclude that it is fair that the government seize unused private land only for an important public purpose and with fair compensation (or not).

The key is that the conclusion flows from our analysis and not vice versa.

Ideas for Teaching The Process

This is a great process to use for “opinion papers,” research papers, and persuasive essays. I’ve found it effective to use examples, such as the ones above, to illustrate the process. The examples can of course be modified to suit different grade levels and subject areas. Here are a few ideas for applications across different subject areas:

1. For Biology, have students use the process to do a research paper or opinion essay on the ethics of cloning.

2. For U.S. History, students can use the process to write an essay on the use of atomic weapons by the U.S. military in World War II.

3. For English, students can use the process to write an essay analyzing the author’s use of a certain technique, symbol, or literary device and its impact.

Why Being a Good Math Student Doesn't Always Equal High SAT/ACT Math Scores

SAT/ACT Math is Harder Than Typical High School Math

SAT and ACT math is deceiving in that it “only” covers topics up to and including typical Algebra 2 content. The ACT and new SAT do include trigonometry (which may or may not be covered in Algebra 2), but trig makes up a tiny percentage of the material on both tests.

Assuming students have taken Algebra 1, Geometry, and Algebra 2, they’ve covered all or almost all of the math on the SAT and ACT. So why is SAT/ACT math so hard?

The issue isn’t that the content is harder, per se; instead, the way SAT/ACT questions are formulated, the time pressure, the inclusion of questions requiring numbers theory, logic, and imaginary symbols most students don’t have experience with, and the mixing of concepts across different math topics make the SAT and ACT math sections more difficult than the typical high school math content.

Question Formulation

Here are some examples illustrating why the same content can seem much more difficult on the SAT/ACT.

See the difference? The same content is required for both sets of questions, but the way the SAT/ACT questions are formulated is much more challenging.

Time Pressure

While students have undoubtedly dealt with time pressure before on tests, quizzes, and final exams, the time pressure of the SAT/ACT math sections is even more difficult to manage. The ACT gives just one minute per math question, while the SAT gives one minute 15 seconds on the no calculator section and one minute 26 seconds on the calculator section. This requires much faster and more intense work by students than what they’ve typically been required to do in math class.

Inclusion of Numbers Logic/Theory/Imaginary Symbols Questions

The SAT in particular (ACT to a lesser extent) will give questions on topics that are completely unfamiliar to the majority of students. They either involve topics students have seen many years ago (but haven’t been required to think deeply about), such as long division remainders, or rules that students work with but don’t explicitly know. There are also questions that involve imaginary symbols and operations. Chances are, students have the content knowledge and skill to answer them, but are often so thrown off by these unusual questions that they pose a challenge. Here are some examples:

• a @ b = (a + b)(2a + 2b). What is x @ 4y?

• For the equation c = b^3, which of the following statements are true?

  • c can never be negative

  • c > b

  • if b is positive, c is positive

• What is the greatest possible remainder when any odd number is divided by 4?

Mixing of Concepts Across Different Math Topics

In the typical Algebra or Geometry curriculum there’s a bit of cross course material, but not very much and it’s highly teacher/course dependent. The SAT and ACT often mix algebra, geometry, and other areas of math both in the same question and throughout the test, requiring students to be well versed in what content knowledge to apply and when.

For Students: How to Handle SAT/ACT Math

There are two general approaches that I think work well for students to prepare for SAT/ACT math. One is to start by doing a math content review of the topics tested, and then doing practice questions regularly (every day if possible, even if only a few questions per day). I think this works best for students who perhaps have forgotten or never fully grasped a number of areas of math content. These students will need to fill in some content areas first in order to make doing practice questions more meaningful.

The other approach is to get into a routine of doing practice questions and fill in any missing content areas as needed. I think this works best for students who already have a good grasp on most of the test content areas.

I recommend that all students build a formula/rule sheet as they work through practice questions, and review that sheet periodically. If students realize in doing a particular practice question that they don’t know or have forgotten the content necessary to answer it, they should address it by reviewing that topic and adding to their formula/rule sheet as necessary.

For Math Teachers: Incorporate SAT/ACT Questions When Possible

Having kids do SAT and ACT questions in class can be a great way to add rigor and challenge to your math class. If kids can do SAT/ACT style questions on a particular topic, typically they will have achieved a deeper level of mastery and understanding of the topic due to the additional challenges that these questions entail.

When I’ve worked with small groups of students, I’ve found that having them verbalize (or write down) their approaches and solutions (giving guidance when necessary) helps them internalize the analytical process they’ll need to do well on the SAT/ACT math sections. Here are some ideas for how to incorporate SAT/ACT questions into your math class:

1. Give SAT/ACT questions as challenges at the end of class. Have students who get them correct use the board to explain/show how they did them and give guidance as needed.

2. Include topic relevant SAT/ACT type questions as a bonus on quizzes or tests.

3. Have an SAT/ACT question of the day up on the board for students to try to solve during class.

4. Use as early finisher assignments.

5. Assign each student one SAT/ACT math question to solve and create a small presentation/diagram/step by step outline explaining how to solve it.

6. Have students discuss alternate methods of solving SAT/ACT questions (often there are at least 2 different ways of doing a problem), determine which method is most expedient and least prone to error, and explain why that method is the best.

The College Board website has a ton of free SAT practice questions, and the ACT website does as well. I’ve also created this free SAT/ACT math formula sheet and this set of 100 practice questions divided by subject area.